Academic Citation Styles Guide
A master comparison of the most common citation formats used in academia and professional writing.
Why Proper Citation Matters
Citing your sources is the foundation of academic integrity. It gives credit to original authors, provides evidence for your arguments, and allows readers to locate your sources for further research.
Citing vs. Paraphrasing
Citing involves using the exact words of an author within quotation marks. Paraphrasing is rewriting an idea in your own words. Both require a citation. Failing to cite a paraphrased idea is one of the most common forms of accidental plagiarism.
Avoiding Plagiarism
- Keep track of every source you read during your research.
- Use quotation marks for any phrase longer than three words taken directly from a source.
- When in doubt, cite it. It is better to over-cite than to under-cite.
- Use plagiarism checkers to verify your work before submission.
Citation Style Comparison
| Style | Common Disciplines | In-Text Format |
|---|---|---|
| APA 7th Edition | Social Sciences, Education, Psychology | (Author, Year) |
| MLA 9th Edition | Humanities, Literature, Arts | (Author Page) |
| Chicago/Turabian (17th Ed.) | History, Business, Fine Arts | Footnotes or (Author Year, Page) |
| Harvard | Natural Sciences, Social Sciences (UK/Australia) | (Author, Year) |
| IEEE | Engineering, Computer Science, IT | [Number] |
| AMA (11th Ed.) | Medicine, Health, Biological Sciences | Superscript Number¹ |
| Vancouver | Medicine, Clinical Sciences | (Number) or [Number] |
| Bluebook | Law, Legal Studies | Footnotes |
APA 7th Edition
Primary Discipline: Social Sciences, Education, Psychology
Bibliography Format: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work. Publisher.
Examples:
- Book: Miller, T. (2021). The art of writing. Academic Press.
- Journal: Smith, J., & Doe, R. (2022). Innovations in linguistics. Journal of Textology, 15(2), 45-60. https://doi.org/10.1001/jot.2022.15
- Website: World Health Organization. (2023, March 12). Global health trends. https://www.who.int/reports/global-trends
MLA 9th Edition
Primary Discipline: Humanities, Literature, Arts
Bibliography Format: Author, First Name. *Title of Work*. Publisher, Year.
Examples:
- Book: Gaiman, Neil. Stardust. William Morrow, 1999.
- Journal: Brown, Linda. "Symbolism in Modern Poetry." Literary Review, vol. 42, no. 3, 2020, pp. 210-225.
- Website: National Endowment for the Arts. "The Importance of Reading." NEA Resources, 15 Jan. 2024, www.arts.gov/reading-importance.
Chicago/Turabian (17th Ed.)
Primary Discipline: History, Business, Fine Arts
Bibliography Format: Author Last, First. *Title of Work*. City: Publisher, Year.
Examples:
- Book: Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma. New York: Penguin Group, 2006.
- Journal: White, Sarah. "The Economics of Publishing." Business History Quarterly 88, no. 4 (Winter 2014): 677-701.
- Website: Google. "Privacy Policy." Last modified January 1, 2024. https://policies.google.com/privacy.
Harvard
Primary Discipline: Natural Sciences, Social Sciences (UK/Australia)
Bibliography Format: Author, Initial. (Year) *Title of work*. Publisher.
Examples:
- Book: Jones, P. (2018) Environmental science. London: Green Books.
- Journal: Watson, J. (2019) 'Climate change impacts', Scientific American, 12(4), pp. 88-102.
- Website: BBC News (2024) World events update. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news (Accessed: 10 May 2024).
IEEE
Primary Discipline: Engineering, Computer Science, IT
Bibliography Format: [Number] Author, *Title of Work*. Publisher, Year.
Examples:
- Book: [1] K. Thompson, Unix System Programming. Prentice Hall, 1985.
- Journal: [2] M. S. Gupta, "Power Amplifier Design," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory, vol. 45, pp. 121-130, Jan. 2020.
- Website: [3] NASA. "Mars Mission Details." nasa.gov. https://www.nasa.gov/mars (accessed Feb. 14, 2024).
AMA (11th Ed.)
Primary Discipline: Medicine, Health, Biological Sciences
Bibliography Format: Author. Title of work. Publisher; Year.
Examples:
- Book: 1. Fauci AS, Braunwald E. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw-Hill; 2008.
- Journal: 2. Kesselheim AS. Drug development and FDA approval. JAMA. 2015;314(2):115-116. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6534
- Website: 3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Flu activity. Published October 10, 2023. Accessed March 1, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/flu
Vancouver
Primary Discipline: Medicine, Clinical Sciences
Bibliography Format: Author. Title. Publisher; Year.
Examples:
- Book: 1. Rang HP, Dale MM. Pharmacology. Churchill Livingstone; 2007.
- Journal: 2. Halpern SD. Solidarity and biomedical research. N Engl J Med. 2004 Sep 16;351(12):1214-22.
- Website: 3. Diabetes Australia. Diabetes in Australia [Internet]. Canberra: Diabetes Australia; 2023 [cited 2024 May 12]. Available from: https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au
Bluebook
Primary Discipline: Law, Legal Studies
Bibliography Format: Author, *Title* (Year).
Examples:
- Book: Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture (2004).
- Journal: Cass R. Sunstein, Social Norms and Social Roles, 96 Colum. L. Rev. 903 (1996).
- Website: U.S. Dep't of Justice, Identity Theft (May 10, 2024), https://www.justice.gov/idtheft.
Citation Generators & Tools
Managing dozens of references manually is prone to error. Professional researchers use reference management software to automate the process.
Zotero
A free, open-source tool that senses content in your web browser and allows you to add it to your library with a single click. Excellent for organizing research.
Mendeley
A free reference manager and academic social network that helps you organize your research, collaborate with others online, and discover the latest research.
EndNote
A premium industry-standard tool used by many universities and researchers for managing complex bibliographies and large-scale research projects.
Frequently Asked Questions
When should I cite a source vs. paraphrasing?
You must cite a source whenever you use an idea, data, or specific wording that is not your own. Paraphrasing also requires a citation because while the words are yours, the original idea belongs to another author.
What is the main difference between APA and MLA styles?
APA style (American Psychological Association) is typically used in social sciences and emphasizes the date of publication. MLA style (Modern Language Association) is common in the humanities and emphasizes the author and page number.
How can I avoid accidental plagiarism?
To avoid accidental plagiarism, keep meticulous notes of your sources during research, use quotation marks for direct quotes, and always cite sources for both direct quotes and paraphrased ideas.
Are citation generators reliable?
Citation generators like Zotero and Mendeley are excellent tools for organizing and generating citations, but they are not perfect. You should always manually verify the generated citations against an official style guide.
Which citation style should I use for a legal paper?
The Bluebook is the standard citation style for legal documents and academic legal writing in the United States.